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Entering 61 years Indonesia – U.S. Bilateral Relationship, 1949 – 2010:
Since official acknowledgment the U.S. Government toward the Republic of Indonesia Post Round Table Conference (1949) untill the Signing of Comprehensive Partnership Agreement (2010)
(Based on U.S. perspective)
National Interest:
A Universal Theory and Its Implementation by the USA
in Indonesia
Case Study: East Timor Issue and Post Terrorist Attact on 11 September 2001
Writer: M Siswanto Prajogo
[Alumnus American Study Post Graduate Program University of Indonesia]
Jakarta, September 2010
(III)
CHAPTER 2
U.S. FOREIGN POLICY IN THE REGION IN TERMS OF CONTAINMENT POLICY
2.1. Containment Policy in the Asia Pacific Region and Southeast Asia
Maximalist doctrine was a fundamental for U.S. foreign policy in the effort of spreading U.S. democracy, especially when U.S.A. dealt with communism oppose western capitalism. The U.S. tried to spread capitalism – which was based on liberalism – to around the world in the name of democracy to secure its global economic interest as well as its political interest. This regards could be observed especially when the U.S. Government under Presiden Harry Truman administration which heirs serious issues which was left by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, which at that time he has submited control on East Europe to Soviet.
The uncondusive situation has forced Truman to establish containment doctrine due to Soviet was more agresive in terms of planting its influence in East Europe, which make the U.S. very afraid that Soviet will extend its influence by doing penetration to West Europe border territoty. The U.S. afraid more proven when Soviet succeed in throwing down Cekoslavia Government (February 1948), then in a row followed by Soviet performed blockade toward Berlin (Jun 1948), Soviet succeed in trial running a-bomb explosion (September 1949), throwing down nationalism Chiang Kai-shek administration by Mao Tse-tung communist regime (October 1949), and followed by North Korea invasion to South Korea (Jun 1950) with indicated supported by Soviet.
In responding such situation, the U.S. could not hold peace; all of efforts must be done. Emergency plenary had been conducted by Truman (December 1949), short time after Soviet conducted blockade toward Berlin and throwing down nationalism Chiang Administration. Advance plenary has been conducted on April 1950 which discuss on National Security Council’s Memorandum (NSC-68). From those plenary could be expected to take strategic steps to response Soviet threats in anywhere around the world, through building capability on conventional weaponry. Based on this condition, it perhaps become the initial of occurring armed racing between the two of super power at that time, in which both parties seemed implement the same doctrine, it was maximalist doctrine.
Post World War II, Soviet which was America alliance in conquering Germany fascism felt that the U.S. betrayed him, in particularly in terms of the development of a-bomb which had been used by the U.S. in terminating War World II. At that time Stalin endeavors to break through the U.S. by extending communism to Europe. As initial step Stalin demanded domination on East Europe as stipulated in Yalta Agreement (February 1945). Besides that, Stalin also had intention to spread his influence to Germany which became his traditional enemy.
Stalin’s primary goal at Yalta seems to have been the guarantee of Soviet security through the establishment of friendly regimes receptive to Soviet troops in strategic areas of Eastern Europe, … No doubt he wanted Communist regimes in Western Europe, or at least weak nation in that area. … [11]
Soviet opposing attitude began clearer when the U.S. want to East Europe Countries was given rights to self govern through general election – as characteristic of the U.S. democracy – but, Soviet refused. The fight western democracy vs. Soviet communism tent to became acute at the tenure of President Harry Truman, when Soviet realized 5 years planning on building of military industry rapidly. This matter clears enough to show about ambition Soviet to strengthen his position in increasing his influence toward East Europe control. The U.S. cannot let such situation. George Kenan – a U.S. diplomat which posting in Moscow – sent alert on Soviet ambition to Washington, he wrote that only the U.S. which have capability to change or terminate Soviet ambition. Kenan alert, then be developed and finally become containment doctrine or Truman doctrine. The term was introduced by the issued of article that be written in Foreign Affair Journal titled “The Sources of Soviet Conduct.” The writer just put “Mr.X” on his writing [12] but, then he was revealed as Mr. George Kenan, at that time he is in position as Director for Policy Planning of the U.S. Department of State.
Truman or Containment doctrine than be integrated with Marshall Plan and it was implemented on U.S. Foreign Policy as “Policy of Containment.” The integration of those doctrine become the pattern of U.S. foreign policy which in initial more emphases on politic and economy aspects rather than military aspect, especially was directed to recover the strength of industry in Europe. [13] This policy for the first time was introduced and applied when Turk and Greece in tight squeeze between Soviet ultimatums on Dardanelles control in one side, and the termination of British assistance in another side. The U.S. viewed the importance of security in the East Mediterranean region; therefore, policy of containment was implemented. On 12 March 1947 the U.S. stated that should give assistance to Turk and Greece. Such assistance as much US$400 million and sent the experts and military to give technical assistance. [14] Historians stated that the event remark the beginning of Cold War. Prior to the event, on February 1947 Secretary of States Dean Acheson doing consultation with Secretary of War/Defense and deliver his presentation about the importance of Greece and Turk in order not to fall in communist regime. He predicted if Greece fall into communism, it was possible would be followed by the fall of Turk, which would give widely opportunity for Soviet to control Dardanelles which was access as the main traffic for sailing to Mediterranean though Black Sea. If these matters really happen, it was not impossible would be followed by the fall of Europe countries such as Italy, Germany and France. The theory which Acheson delivered then was well known as domino theory.
At that time the economic condition in Europe became worse, including British. The U.S. applied policy by giving economic aid in assisting West Europe economy recovery through Marshall Plan. The planning of the economic assistance was processed in the same time with the process of containment doctrine. Then both doctrines were implemented simultaneously as policy of containment. Those policies like spear have two eyes, in which the countries recipient in the same time obtains economic assistance and military assistance.
Economic conditions in East Europe are not better or even tend to worse compare with West Europe. Responding Marshall which was launched by the U.S. for West Europe, then Soviet on 25 January 1949 also launching equal program to assist economic recovery in East Europe, the program called as Council for Mutual economic Assistance (COMECON).
Marshal Plan became integral part of policy of containment through economic approach. To optimize the achievement of that policy through security approach – which was realization of U.S. maximalist doctrine – the U.S. had initiative for establishment of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 4 April 1949 which had membership come from 12 West Countries (The U.S., Canada, Turk, Greece, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, British, German, and Spain). The establishment of NATO was triggered by Soviet action which established Republic of Germany Democratic as equal of U.S. initiative in establishing of Republic of German Federation. Then, six years later on 14 May 1955 Soviet established equal Pact called as Warsaw Pact which had membership consist of 6 East Europe Countries (Bulgaria, Rumania, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia) which under Soviet influence.
The implementation of policy of containment became more assertive when Soviet increased his building of capability in military weaponries, included in terms of developing a-bomb. Truman performed special plenary to discuss National Security Council’s Memorandum 68/NSC-68 which expected was able to response Soviet various threat wherever might happen in around the world.
Communist Soviet threat made the U.S. frightened increase since the fall of Czechoslovakia and the success of Soviet in terms of developing a-bomb. Soviet announce his success on trial run of a-bomb explosion on 23 September 1949, followed by the fall of China to communist regime by declaration of the People’s Republic of China by Mao Tse-tung on 1 October 1949. This matter made global situation getting worse, then it trigger armed racing and forced Truman to decide increasing on defense budget policy was approximately $15 billion.
At beginning March 1950, Acheson in a discussion forum stated that: ...The U.S., must fight the cold war with “total diplomacy,” comparable in sacrifice by the American people to total war. [15] Furthermore, Acheson stated that to implement “total diplomacy” to contain communism, it was needed drastically changing policy on politic, social and economy by de-emphasize of entering dollar from West Europe, and fixing up the declining of domestic industry. In the mean time U.S. foreign policy directed towards discovering alliance to cope with war against communism and to protect their independence from communism aggression. Based on the statement U.S. fully realized that fight against communist will very difficult to cope with if only it was done unilaterally.
On 14 April 1950, in special plenary to further discuss on NSC-68, it could be conclude that:
The foregoing analysis indicates that the probable fission bomb capability of Soviet Union have greatly intensified the Soviet threat to the security of United States. This threat is of the same character as described in NSC 20/4 (approved by the President on November 24, 1948) but is more immediate than had previously been estimated. …within the next four or five years the Soviet Union will possess the military capability of delivering a surprise atomic attack of such weight that the United States must have substantially increase general air, ground, and sea strength, atomic capability, and air and civilian defenses to deter war and to provide reasonable assurance, in the event of war, that it could survive the initial blow and go on the eventual attainment of its objectives. In turn, this contingency requires the intensification of our effort in the field of intelligence and research and development… [16]
To realized NSC-68 recommendation in building capability of the U.S. military, it assessed will need budget as much $30 - $50 billion, it means needed budget twice up to three times from initial defense budget which had been planned by Truman. Starting from this point the U.S. made readiness seriously about preparation strategy in dealing with war against communist Soviet, which in Nixon administration that strategy then was developed as flexible response strategy in fighting against global communism. In this regards could be identified that maximalist doctrine was implemented decisively to contain communism spreading.
The next implementation of containment policy was, when the U.S. involved in Korean War to release South Korea from Communist North Korea invasion. Korean War was part of the heirs of unresolved conflict at World War II. Alliances was not pay attention to Korea, in which they was not make specific arrangement until Soviet involved in the Pacific War, just a day prior to Japan came under the yoke. America and Soviet bustled agreed that Soviet occupied North Korea temporary, while the U.S. occupied South Korea. America assumed that Korea would be integrated and established their own government, after that U.S. and Soviet should withdraw their troops from Korea.
Yet, in the reality then Soviet established North Korea Government from limbo Korean Communist Party. Soviet implemented tight regulation for North Korea to make any relationship with outside parties. Soviet also built strong North Korea Armed Forces to assist Red Forces in regarding to maintain control, and also launched land reform program to win domestic support although they repressive toward the new government. Then, the U.S. asked Soviet to establish new Korean government through general election, but, both parties had difficulties to decide appropriate format due to the two parties never like-minded. As a result general election which had been planned by them failed. Furthermore, the U.S. proposed to Soviet in order to conduct general election with involving United Nation, but this matter was refused by Soviet as well. In this regards, we can see ideology fighting between American democracies vs. Soviet communism, which really cannot compromise to resolve Korean dispute in peaceful manner.
U.N. conducted general election in Korea in 1948. Based on such general election had established Republic of Korea with Syngman Rhee as the leader. Come close to middle 1949, the U.S. withdrew its troops as many 7.500 from South Korea. Rhee soon built his armed forces and sent them to border territory. In next period North Korea performed invasion to South Korea (Jun 1950). The U.S. distrusted that those invasion was supported by Soviet. The U.S. do not want to China episode would be occurred again, in which Chiang Kai-shek (The leader of China Nationalist Group) surrendered by Mao Tse-tung which established communist regime. In this regard, Truman credibility with containment doctrine was really betted.
In this context, Truman assigned General McArthur lead Amercan troops with the 7th Fleet which was deployed from Filiphine to Taiwan Strait, with a message in order that General McArthur tried to avoid the extended of war with Rusia or China. The troops deployment also mean to block Mao who tried to arrogate Taiwan. When General McArthur met Chiang Kai-shek which saw gestured requesting toward U.S. permanent commitment in supporting nationalist Taiwan Government, Truman sent Averell Harriman to remind McArthur in order not to make promise which had alot on the ball requesting Chiang. Then McArthur announced that the U.S. 7th Fleet would be drawn from Taiwan Strait after Korean War ended.
General McArthur troops carryed out amphibious attact at battle front of North Korea troops in Incheon coast, then remain move forward untill finally could destroyed the troops of North Korea communist regime pass over parallel north 38 degrees border line. In this South Korea salvation operation McArthur reminded China not to intervension, cause if China did it, General McArthur will not hesitate to conquer it.
General McArthur movement stoped after got through parallel north 38 degress border line and followed by peace negosiation. The battle effectivelly finishes in only 3 moths with spending cost and batlle victime relatively small. In this battle taken a toll of life as many 30.000 American soldiers, while from South Korea taken a toll of more life than America. In this batlle recomendation of NSC-68 fully implemented. Defense spending of the U.S. had three times from initial planning $15 billion before Korean War, became $44 billion in 1952 and then became $50 billion in 1953. Shock which underwent by America in a row the fall of Cekoslovakia, blockade of Berlin, the success trial ran of Soviet explotion of a-bomb, the fall of China to communist regime, and finally Korean War brought Cold War to the peak of dangerous which would continued for the generation. [17]
This Korean War gave learning for the U.S. on how communist worked on undeveloped countries and developing countries for planting its influence. At the same time with breaking of Korean War, the influence of communist began to develop in some contries in Southeast Asia region such as in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Indonesia. The U.S. do not want to take risk on spreading of communist in the Southeast Asia, included in Inonesia. Therefore, to contain communist influence the U.S. lauched assistance program which combined economic and military assistance as realization of combination of Marshall Plan and Containment Doctrine. The implementation of this policy was the U.S. Security Assistance.
In terms of maximalized the achievement of policy of containment, the U.S. not only untill on giving security assistance. Paid more concern on communist influence which tend to stronger then before in Asia Pacific especially in South Asia, emerge U.S. afraid toward the fall of the countries in the region in communist regime, in the same manner as domino theory which Acheson had already delivered when guarded the fall of West Europe countries to communis regime.
The U.S. afright more reasonable when Korean War ended in 1953 then the communist influence in Indochina became stronger. Even when France troops deal with dificulties in the fight agains Indochina communism and got assistance various military equipment from the U.S., France remain are able to face against communist Indochina. To anticipate such condition which more uncertainty Secretary of States Dulles on 6 September 1954 conducted conference in Manila with representative from countries Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Philipine, Thailand and Pakistan. The countries in the region which was invited but did not present was India, Burma, Srilanka (Ceylon) and Indonesia. In those conference finally was agreed to establish the Pact like NATO in the Southeast region was Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) which was intended to contain the spreading of communist in Southeast Asia.
2.2. U.S. Security Assistance and U.S. Interest
U.S. Security Assistance was one of program which have close relation to U.S. foreign policy in the field of military and defense cooperation with developing countries, including Indonesia. The assistance was given in various program forms such as International Military Education Training (IMET), Military Assistance Program (MAP), and Foreign Military Sales (FMS).
In running foreign policy through spreading democracy, the U.S. launched such assistance programs to developing countries included security assistance. Through the spreading of democracy around the world which based on manifest destiny spirit, so that, in concerning of U.S. national interest was identical with its global interest. One of the U.S. global challenges in spreading democracy in certain time was the existing influence of spreading communalism which ideologically was against with democracy and capitalism. In 1947 President Harry Truman launched containment doctrine, which became his statement on global war to contain spreading of communism. Indeed, the Cold War just beginning.
As a democracy country which based on liberalism included capitalism, the U.S. encouraged its entrepreneurs to extend in doing their business in every where they can do. One of the U.S entrepreneurs target to develop their business was developing countries which rich in the natural resources, and in the same time actually the developing countries was the big market in terms of extending on the U.S. manufacturer product, and to introduce free market mechanism or capitalism, without government intervention.
The U.S. also as industrial country of course needs huge energy availability for driven economic system which becomes the vital factor for its entire life sector. The success of economic development should be protected by tight control of domestic security. For that it needs the existing strong military as deterrence factor to secure all of assets and wealth which they have achieve. Back to the need on energy as driven of economic system which so vital for the U.S., the U.S. need supply by huge energy which in this regards out of question to fulfill only from fuel domestic product. Therefore, the U.S. in performing business expansion around the world one of the purpose was looked for business opportunity through invest in energy exploration sector. One of the sources of the U.S. energy supply initially was obtained in developing countries such as in Middle East region, and Asia Pacific especially Southeast including Indonesia.
One of tension which ever occurred in Middle East post World War II also because of struggle to control source of energy. Russian tried to exist in Iran to enter in exploration oil there after the entering Germany, in which British was earlier doing exploration since 1920. Then between British and Russian became alliance to block the entering Germany. This issue cannot be released from the problem of Iran imperialism throne. Furthermore, the U.S. entered preceded by building of train infrastructure. Then, the U.S. began worrying about the present of British and Russian along with their military troops permanently in Iran. The presenting of both troops was the rest of occupation at the time of occurring World War II. Therefore, the U.S. tried to provide a treaty and in 1942 the treaty was agreed by all of the forces which occupied Iran to withdraw their troops in 6 months after the war ended. With the treaty, British and the U.S. withdrew their troops before the time limitation which stipulated on 2 March 1944 except some U.S. adviser which was still left due to requested by Iran Government. Meanwhile, Soviet remain want to defend the existence of its troops in Iran. [18] Due to this matter, it became one of the trigger the tension of relationship between the U.S. and Russian.
The hunt of source of oil was continued to be performed by the U.S., including in Southeast region, in which the U.S. made its investment. In conjunction with the hunt of source of oil by the U.S. in Asia, there was a written as follow:
In 1948, the United States became a net importer of oil. Seven major companies, “Big Oil,” spear heated the world industry. Of these companies five were American – Chevron, Exxon, Gulf, Mobil and Texaco – … The developing countries that owned the vast supply of discovered oil reserves were scattered across the earth: Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela… The companies proceeded to construct legal and business systems for extracting the oil and controlling supply. [19]
The U.S. realized that out of question to protect its economic interests directly in the developing countries. Therefore, along with the implementation of containment doctrine, the U.S. also gave its security assistance. Because if there was politic turmoil in a developing country, then its interest would also in danger by the pattern of communist straggle, this would destroy the U.S. capitalism, through nationalization of foreign companies unilaterally. In fact, the U.S. Security Assistance to developing countries in which the U.S. national interest exist in there, was especially to give the increasing of capacity building in the field of security in those country. By the securing of that country, accordingly U.S. interest would also become secure.
2.3. The Conditions which set in U.S. Security Assistance recipent countries
The Policy which based the implementation of the U.S. Security Assistance contain three regulations as follow:
2.3.1. U.S. Congressional Authorization and Appropriations [20]
This assistance program usually was initiated by the U.S. Government in this case by U.S. Department of Defense, or based on necessity of the recipient country, both Foreign Military Sales (FMS), which funded by the recipient country, and Foreign Military Financing (FMF) which funded by the U.S. Government. Once again the both of program remain under control the U.S. Government in terms of the using of defense article which the recipient country has gotten.
2.3.2. Authorization Acts
Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA); along with its amendment. This regulation consists of any conditions which should be fulfilled by the recipient country. [21] Such conditions are: (i) the recipient countries are not allowed to transfer any defense article to the third country without prior official concern from the U.S. Government; (ii) all of defense article along with its components should be resubmitted to the U.S. Government, if the recipient countries are not to use it anymore (especially for defense article which was obtain based on grant basis); (iii) If defense articles are disposed – based upon approval from the U.S. Government – including any “scrap” from any such defense article, shall be paid to the U.S. Government; (iv) The recipient country shall maintain the security of such defense articles that it shall provide substantially the same degree of protection afforded to such defense articles by the U.S. Government; (v) The Recipient country should give access to the U.S. Government to make provision of defense articles from time to time. [22]
Arms Export Control Act of 1776 (AECA), this regulation also accommodate various provision that exist on International Traffic in Arms Regulation (ITAR). These provisions consist of any matter which related to arrangement on whatever defense article which might be sold and not to the any country want to purchase. [23]
2.3.3. Human Rights.
The U.S. Government has international obligation as stipulated in U.N. Charter, and also as the realization of the heirs of tradition of its Constitutions. In this regard, the U.S. should promote and encourage the increasing of the respect of human rights and the foundation of liberalization around the world without exception for ethnic, gender, language or religion. These principles had been used by America in implementing of its foreign policy, so U.S. Congress will not agree in giving U.S. Security Assistance for any country that was indicated involved in Human Rights Violation as stipulated in Section 502B, FAA. [24] Such Policy has been known as Human Right Vetting.
References:
[11] Jerald A. Combs, The History of American Foreign Policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), 306.
[12] Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, 4th ed (New York: Penguin Books Inc., 1985), 99.
[13] Jerald A. Combs, op.cit, 333.
[14] Alexander Deconde, A History of American Foreign Policy (New York: Charles Scripner’s Sons, 1963), 669 – 670.
[15] Time in partnership with CNN, “Total Diplomacy.” (New York), 13 March 1950., 8 March 2009. <http://www.time.com/time/ printout/8816,812120,00,htm.>.
[16] NSC-68 Conclusions, NSC-68 of April 14, 1950., 8 March 2009. <http://history.sandiego. edu/gen/20th/ nsc68.html.>.
[17] Alexander Deconde, op.cit, 345
[18] Jerald A. Combs, op.cit, 326
[19] Joseph Cotton Wright, Oil: Demand, Supply and Trends in the United States (W/o Place.: University of California Berkeley, W/o Year.), 2.
[20] The Defense Institute of Security Assistance Management, The Management of Security Assistance, 26th ed (Ohio: DISAM, 2006), 2-1.
[21] Ibid.
[22] The latest of Amendment of Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA) was Diplomatic “505 Agreement” of Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia to U.S. Ambassador in Jakarta No. D.638/PO/IX/2006/36, Jakarta: 6 September 2006.
[23] The Defense Institute of Security Assistance Management, op.cit, 2-1.
[24] Ibid., 2-9.
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